Modern Liberalism

During the 17th century, political thinkers began to debate liberal ideas concerning voting rights, parliamentary rule, government responsibilities, and freedom of conscience. In 1644 English poet and prose writer John Milton wrote Areopagitica, advocating freedom of thought and expression. English philosopher Thomas Hobbes argued that the sole test of government was its effectiveness and stressed individual equality. English philosopher John Locke argued for popular sovereignty, the right of rebellion against oppression, and toleration of religious minorities. According to Locke and his followers, the state exists to serve its citizens and to guarantee their life, liberty, and property under a constitution. American statesman Thomas Jefferson echoed Locke's ideas when he wrote the Declaration of Independence.

In France, Locke's philosophy was adopted by the leaders of the French Enlightenment. French philosopher Voltaire insisted that the state should be supreme over the church and demanded universal religious toleration, abolition of censorship, and a strong state acting only against obstructions of social progress and individual liberty.