Who Governs?

The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle classified governments by the number of rulers and by certain principles under which they operated. Today, various forms of government, including democracy and communism, differ mainly by the degree in which the people participate in them.

Aristotle's categories. Aristotle, sometimes called the father of political science, suggested that all governments fall into one of three categories: (1) rule by one person, (2) rule by a few people, and (3) rule by many people. Within each category, rule could be exercised for the benefit of all and be "virtuous," or for the benefit of only the rulers and be "corrupt." When one person ruled for the good of all, Aristotle taught, the government was a monarchy. A corrupt monarchy was a tyranny, whose leader ruled to satisfy an appetite for power or wealth. Government by a few people, for the good of all, was an aristocracy. When a small group of people ruled to increase their own power or wealth, the government was an oligarchy. Rule by many people, for the good of all, was called polity by Aristotle. In a polity, a large number of citizens could rule for the benefit of the rest.

Democracy was Aristotle's name for corrupt rule by the majority, and it was to be feared as a dangerous kind of mob rule.

Democracy. Since the late 1600's, the idea that a nation's people are the most legitimate source of authority for public government has won increasing acceptance. United States President Abraham Lincoln emphasized this idea in 1863 in his Gettysburg Address, in which he referred to the nation's democracy as a government "of the people, by the people, for the people, ...." In a direct democracy, the people govern themselves, making the laws for their community together. But direct democracy can work only in small communities, where the people can all meet in one place. All the people of large communities--cities, states, provinces, or countries--cannot meet in one place. Instead, they elect a certain number of their fellow citizens to represent them in making laws. An assembly of representatives may be a council, a legislature, a congress, or a parliament. Each permits the people to make the laws indirectly--through their representatives.

Representative government is the chief feature of a republic. The republican form of government achieves self-government, the goal of modern democracy, for large communities, such as cities or countries. In democratic countries, the people have almost unlimited opportunities to make the government truly representative. They vote in secret, may seek public office, and may demand the removal of public officials who behave improperly. The basic laws of democratic countries guarantee many rights, including freedom of speech and of the press.

If people can take an actual part in the process of their government, the government may be called democratic. Under such a system of government, the people have political democracy. Many people in a democracy take part in government by supporting a political party. Such organizations are vital to a democracy. They compete to capture control of public government and give it direction. They also recruit candidates, adopt policies, and work to form public opinion on important issues.

Some scholars suggest that capitalism, in which the means of production are mostly privately owned, is also a necessary condition for democracy. But political democracy exists in such countries as Sweden and Israel, where Socialist parties have spent many years in power.

The term democracy can be confusing because some nations that have kept the forms of monarchy and aristocracy, such as the United Kingdom and Japan, actually function as democracies. On the other hand, some nations calling themselves democracies or republics are not democratic at all.

Communism. In traditional Communist societies, the process of government is tightly controlled by a small group--the members of the Communist Party. Few other people have any voice in the government. Voting consists of casting ballots for Communist candidates only. Rival political parties cannot be organized. The government controls all publications, radio, and television, and strongly restricts what may be said or written.

Leaders in most Communist nations call their systems democratic because the systems are designed to eliminate extremes of wealth and poverty. Such countries provide programs that bring education, medical care, housing, culture, and employment to the mass of the people. The programs focus on groups or classes, not on individuals. Communist Party members say that individual liberty is sacrificed for the good of the whole of society. But in spite of being troubled by continuing poverty, democracies with capitalistic or mixed economies have provided greater prosperity for more people than has any other system of government. In addition, such prosperity has been achieved without major sacrifices of personal liberty.

2. Study the following phrases. Recall the sentences in which they are used in the text. Use them when retelling the unit.

a) benefit ['benIfIt] ( перевага, користь, благодійницька справа) = a. Something that promotes or enhances well-being; an advantage. b. Help; aid. c. A public entertainment, performance, or social event held to raise funds for a person or cause. to benefit = profit = "to derive advantage from something"

b) exercise ['eksqsaIz] (здійснювати, застосовувати, розвивати, використовувати; користуватися; виявляти, хвилювати, турбувати, непокоїти) = 1.To put into play or operation; employ: Proceed, but exercise caution. 2. To bring to bear; exert: "The desire to be re-elected exercises a strong brake on independent courage" (John F. Kennedy). 3. a. To subject to practice or exertion in order to train, strengthen, or develop: exercise the back muscles; exercise the memory. b. To put through exercises: exercise a platoon. See synonyms at practice. 4. To carry out the functions of; execute: exercise the role of disciplinarian. 5. a. To absorb the attentions of, especially by worry or anxiety. b. To stir to anger or alarm; upset: an injustice that exercised the whole community.

c) virtuous ['vE:tSVqs] (доброчесний; сильний, дійовий, ефективний) = 1.Having or showing virtue, especially moral excellence: led a virtuous life. 2. Possessing or characterized by chastity; pure: a virtuous woman. See synonyms at moral.

d) polity ['pPlItI] 1) державний устрій 2) образ або форма правління civil polity – цивільна форма правління; держава; уряд = 1.The form of government of a nation, a state, a church, or an organization. 2.An organized society, such as a nation, having a specific form of government: "His alien philosophy found no roots in the American polity" (New York Times).

e) permit [pq'mIt] (дозволяти, давати дозвіл, можливість) = 1.To allow the doing of (something); consent to: permit the sale of alcoholic beverages. 2. To grant consent or leave to (someone); authorize: permitted him to explain. 3. To afford opportunity or possibility for: weather that permits sailing.

f) recruit [rI'kru:t] (набирати, поповнювати ряди, мобілізувати) = 1. To engage (persons) for military service. 2.To strengthen or raise (an armed force) by enlistment. 3. To supply with new members or employees. 4. To enroll or seek to enroll: colleges recruiting minority students. 5.To replenish. 6. To renew or restore the health, vitality, or intensity of.

g) restrict [rI'strIkt] (обмежувати, тримати в певних межах) = To keep or confine within limits. See synonyms at limit.

h) sacrifice ['sxkrIfaIs] (жертва, жертвувати) = Forfeiture['fO:fItSq] (втрата) of something highly valued for the sake of one considered to have a greater value or claim.

i) prosperity [prP'sperItI] ( процвітання, успіх) = booming economy; plenty; success; flourishing.

3. Find in the text English equivalents of the following words and phrases .Use them in sentences of your own and situations from the text:

1. підпадати під категорію

2. функціонувати (діяти)

3. доброчесний

4. правління натовпу (охлократія)

5. спотворене (корумповане) правління більшості

6. зростаюче визнання (схвалення)

7. рада

8. законодавча влада

9. поводити (вести) себе невідповідно

10. вимагати усунення посадових осіб

11. претендувати (прагнути) на державну посаду

12. збиваючий з глузду ( з пантелику) рос.сбивающий с толку

13. конкуруючі політичні партії

14. ліквідувати крайнощі

15. добробут та бідність

16. зосереджувати увагу на чомусь

601. 4. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations:

1. to fall into one’s category

2. to operate

3. virtuous

4. mob rule

5. corrupt rule by the majority

6. increasing acceptance

7. council

8. legislature

9. the goal of modern democracy

10. to behave improperly

11. to demand the removal of public officials

12. to seek public office

13. to capture ['kxptSq] control of smth

14. to form public opinion

15. confusing

16. to cast ballots

17. rival ['raIv(q)l] political parties

18. to eliminate extremes

19. to focus on something

602. 5. Match each word with its definition.Write the letter of the definition on the line.

     ___1)Communism	a)Absolute power, especially when exercised unjustly or cruelly.
     ___2)Aristocracy ["xrI'stPkrqsI]	b)Government by a few, especially by a small faction (фракція) of persons or families.
     ___3)Oligarchy ['PlIgQ:kI]	c)A hereditary ruling class;nobility.
     ___4)Capitalism	d) Government by the masses; mob rule.
     ___5)Tyranny ['tIrqnI]	e)A theoretical economic system characterized by the collective ownership of property and by the organization of labor for the common advantage of all members.
     ___6)Ochlocracy [Pk'lPkrqsI]	f)An economic system in which the means of production and distribution are privately or corporately owned and development is proportionate to the accumulation and reinvestment of profits gained in a free market.

604. 6. Correct grammar, lexical and textual mistakes:

1. Aristotle is sometimes called the father of psychology.

2. United States Emperor Abraham Lincoln referred to the nation's democracy as a government "of the people, by the people, for the people, ...." in 1863 in his Gettysburg Address.

3. Various forms of government differs mainly by the degree in which the people participate in them.

4. Representative government is the chief feature of a tyranny.

617. 5) The basic laws of democratic countries guarantee many rights, including freedom of hijacking ['haIdZxkIN], kidnapping and the press.

618. 6) Political parties also recruit candidates, adopt policies, and work to form public opinion on important issues either.

619. 7) Capitalism is a necessary condition for democracy.

8. Some nations have been kept the forms of monarchy and aristocracy.

9. Voting in traditional communist societies consists from casting ballots for Communist candidates only.

10. Such countries provide programs to brought education, medical care, housing, culture, and employment to the mass of the people.

621. 7. Fill in the blanks & define the tenses in the following sentences:

622. a) But in spite of ………. ………….. by continuing poverty, democracies with capitalistic or mixed economies ……….. …………. greater prosperity for more people than ……….. any other system of government.

623. b) In addition, such prosperity …….. ……… …………. without major sacrifices of personal liberty.

3. Democracy was ……. ……………. as a dangerous kind of mob rule.

4. The process of government …. ……….. controlled by a small group.

5. Rival political parties ………… ……. organized.

625. 8. Write an annotation of the text

627. 9. Match up the pairs of synonyms correspondingly.

     Synonym	Synonym
     a)virtuous	crowd mastery
     b)confusing	medley
     с)prosperity	prey
     d)mixed	embarrassing
     e)sacrifice	bonanza [bq(V)'nxnzq]
     f)to permit	to gain possession
     g)to restrict	to restrain
     h)mob rule	moral
     i)to capture control	to consent [kqn'sent]

628. 10. Retell the text : a) in detail b) in brief .

629. 11. Express the following in English. Supply answers.Work in pairs:

1. Які категорії уряду запропонував Арістотель ?

2. Яке значення вкладав Арістотель у термін "олігархія" ?

3. Що відрізняє демократію від монархії (за Арістотелем) ?

4. У яких країнах найбільш реальна вірогідність усунення посадових осіб, що ведуть себе невідповідно ?

5. Що гарантують основні закони демократичних країн ?

6. Чи є капіталізм необхідною умовою для розвитку демократії ?

7. Чи можлива сумісність понять "монархія" та "демократія" у політичному процесі розбудови держави ?

8. На чому зосереджено увагу у політико-економічних програмах комуністичних країн ?

9. В чому полягає перевага країн з капіталістичними або змішаними економіками над комуністичними державами з плановим виробництвом? Чи є в них слабкі сторони? Доведіть це на прикладах.

651. 12. Answer the following questions:

1. What did Aristotle say about virtuous and corrupt governments?

2. How did Aristotle name rule by many people, for the good of all?

3. What idea did Abraham Lincoln emphasize in 1863 in his Gettysburg Address?

4. What is the chief feature of a republic?

5. What government may be called democratic?

6. What’s the role of the political parties in the state’s development?

7. What are the characteristic features of the traditional communist societies?

8. How can individual liberty and the interests of the whole of society be correlated?

9. How can advantages and disadvantages of socialist (communist) & capitalist societies be precisely defined ? Prove them by your own examples.