History of Political Parties

Political parties evolved through the struggle of contending groups to control the government. An early model of the modern party system developed in Britain in the 18th century, shaped around the efforts of the Whig and Tory parties to control government jobs and political influence. A party system also developed in the United States in the late 1700s and early 1800s, pitting members of the Federalist Party against members of the Democratic-Republican Party.

During the 19th century political parties grew dramatically in size as voting rights were extended to adult male citizens throughout Europe and the United States. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, political machines offered urban Americans an array of services, ranging from housing, food, and jobs to legal assistance and language instruction. In return, they asked for votes.

The influence of primary elections, the mass media, and lobbyists for special interests has gradually weakened party ties to the candidates and the voters. Public attention now focuses on the personalities and ideologies of candidates, rather than the benefits that the party as an organization can offer party loyalists. Candidate organizations have taken over more of the work of campaigning. The political parties continue to provide expert assistance with polling, fundraising, and advertising efforts of candidates. They also help to coordinate the campaigns of party members and organize statewide and national conventions.

Political Campaign, organized effort by a political party or candidate for public office to attract voter support in an election. Candidates organize a network of volunteer and professional campaign workers, establish a fund-raising apparatus to finance expenses, and develop media and advertising strategies to communicate an image and a message.

Modern political campaigning includes four basic elements: professional public relations, polling, direct mail, and the broadcast media. Hired campaign consultants typically direct modern political campaigns. They conduct public opinion polls, produce television commercials, organize direct-mail campaigns, and develop the issues and advertising messages used by the candidate. Polling data help candidates and their staffs to select issues, assess strengths and weaknesses of the candidate and of the opposition, and measure voter responsiveness to campaign appeals. Direct-mail campaigns include distributing pamphlets, letters, and brochures describing the candidate's views and appealing for funds.

Broadcast media provide perhaps the most powerful means for candidates to increase their public exposure. The televised spot advertisement attempts to establish candidate name identification, create a favorable image of the candidate and a negative image of the opponent, link the candidate with desirable groups, and communicate the candidate's stands on selected issues. Televised debates between opposing candidates enable the contenders to reach millions of viewers and can increase the visibility of lesser-known candidates.

During the 1990s presidential campaigns introduced four new media settings for candidates: the talk show interview, the electronic town hall meeting, the infomercial, and the Internet website. Television and radio talk shows enable candidates to address a vast audience without the presence of journalists or commentators who might criticize or question them. The televised town meeting format allows candidates to interact directly with ordinary citizens, while simultaneously reaching viewers across the nation. The infomercial is a lengthy televised broadcast, presenting the candidate's views in a manner similar to a news program. Candidates also design elaborate sites on the Internet that offer detailed information about their experience and qualifications, their political views, and the progress of their campaigns.

Historically, political parties representing the aspirations of working-class voters gained an edge in campaigns through their ability to mobilize and organize large masses of people. However, the weakening of party organizations and the move toward technology-intensive campaigns have shifted the balance of power from working-class voters to those with more money. These campaigns emphasize the impact of money in politics and help those politicians who speak for wealthier constituents.

Presidential System of government consists of separate legislative and executive branches. A president, who is elected for a fixed term, heads the executive branch.

Prime Minister or Premier ['premIq], highest ranking minister of a country, and in practice often the chief executive, even though the nation's constitution might provide for a king or a president as head of state. The prime minister is usually the chief formulator of governmental policy. The office is particularly associated with the parliamentary system of government and is commonly held by the leader of the majority party or coalition of parties. The prime minister is assisted by a cabinet and is responsible to the legislature.

Proportional Representation, electoral system designed to produce legislative bodies in which the number of seats held by any group or party is proportional to the number of votes cast for members of that group. The purpose of proportional representation has been to reduce the power of a dominant political party and to provide minority groups with a degree of representation that has been denied them previously. Modern systems of proportional representation probably originated during the French Revolution (1789-1799), and the principle was favored by the 19th century British philosopher John Stuart Mill. The technique was first used in Denmark in 1855, and subsequently in other European countries. By 1920, some form of proportional representation was being used by almost all the countries of continental Europe. Since then, the practices of proportional representation have been modified and refined and are used by most European democracies for legislative, as well as local, elections. The principles of proportional representation were used in some United States cities during the early 20th century, but were abandoned.

Public Opinion, attitudes, perspectives, and preferences of a population toward events, circumstances, and issues of mutual interest. Public opinion can be shaped by relatively permanent circumstances–for example, race, religion, geographical location, economic status, and educational level–or by temporary factors, including current events, the opinions of influential or authoritative persons, the effect of the mass communications media, and public relations campaigns. Public opinion is usually measured by a sample survey or a public opinion poll.

Uses

Hundreds of public opinion polling firms operate around the world. In business, polls are used to test consumers' preferences and to discover what it is about a product that gives it appeal. Response to commercial polls aids in planning marketing and advertising strategies. In politics, polls are used to obtain information about voters' attitudes toward issues and candidates, to put forward candidates with winning potential, and to plan campaigns. Polling organizations have also been successful in predicting the outcome of elections. Governments use opinion polls to learn what people think about many issues. In addition, government agencies use polling methodology to determine unemployment rates, crime rates, and other social and economic indicators. Academic research, particularly in the social sciences, also makes wide use of polls.