Republics in History

Some scholars regard the ancient confederation of Hebrew tribes in Palestine from the 15th century BC until about 1020 BC as an embryonic republic. Early republics include many Greek city-states after the early 8th century BC, Carthage for more than 300 years, and Rome for more than 500 years. Later republics include Iceland, which established a republic in AD 930 that lasted for more than 300 years; the medieval commercial city-states of northern Italy; and the Commonwealth (1649-1660) of England, Scotland, and Ireland under Oliver Cromwell.

Modern republicanism began with the American Revolution of 1776 and the French Revolution of 1789. The establishment of the United States as a federal republic with a government consisting of three coordinate branches, each independent of the others, created a precedent that was widely imitated throughout the western hemisphere and elsewhere.

Revolution, ["revq'lu:S(q)n] forcible, pervasive, and often violent change of a social or political order. Revolution is the most extreme political option of a dissenting group, a course taken generally when more moderate attempts to achieve reform have failed. Modern societies owe much to past uprisings against repressive governments. On the other hand, revolutions have often replaced one evil with another, sometimes leading to opposing counterrevolutions.

A revolution is distinguished from a coup d'état ['ku:deI'tQ:], which is a sudden seizure of state power by a small faction that does not necessarily change the social system, and a revolt or rebellion, which may be either a failed attempt at revolution or a violent expression of grievances. See American Revolution; English Revolution; French Revolution; Russian Revolution.

Right Wing is a group of people and parties holding conservative or reactionary views.

Secret Police, special police force organized by autocratic or totalitarian regimes. Early modern examples were the intelligence services organized by Joseph Fouchй for Napoleon I and by Prince Klemens von Metternich in Austria after 1819. The first truly modern model, adding judiciary and executive powers, was the Okhrana in tsarist Russia, established in 1825. The Okhrana has had numerous successors in the 20th century, including the KGB of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the OVRA of Fascist Italy, and the Gestapo of Nazi Germany. These forces rely heavily on torture for investigative purposes and detention for isolating prisoners.

Separation of Powers, ["sepq'reIS(q)nqv'paVqz] (юр. розділення влади (розмежування законодавчої, виконавчої та судової влади) concept of government in the United States whereby power is divided among the executive, judicial, and legislative branches.

Socialism ['sqVS(q)lIz(q)m] is an economic system and also a way of life. Socialists believe that a country's principal means of production should be owned or controlled by public governments or by cooperatives.

Socialization ["sqVSqlaI'zeIS(q)n] is the process of learning or being taught the standards of a group or society.

Social Security, ["sqVS(q)lsI'kjV(q)rItI] (соціальний захист) public programs designed to provide income and services to individuals in the event of retirement, sickness, disability, death, or unemployment. In the United States the term social security refers to the programs established under the Social Security Act, originally enacted in 1935. The Social Security Act consists of 20 titles or subjects, including Old-Age, Survivors', and Disability Insurance; Medicare; Supplemental Security Income; Unemployment Compensation; Aid to Families with Dependent Children; and Medicaid.