History of Espionage

Intelligence was haphazardly organized until the rise of nationalism in the 18th century. Political espionage is thought to have first been used systematically during the French Revolution (1789). Under the direction of Joseph Fouché;, duc d'Otrante, a network of police and spies uncovered conspiracies to seize power. Not until the late-19th century, however, were permanent intelligence bureaus created.

Most nations entered World War I (1914-1918) with inadequate espionage staffs, and the war was fought frequently on the basis of poor intelligence. World War II (1939-1945) was the great stimulus to intelligence services worldwide. Some of the major battles of the war were actually intelligence battles. Japan's surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 was a major intelligence failure for the Americans, stimulating the postwar growth of a massive intelligence apparatus in the United States.

In the mid-1970s the Vietnam War, Watergate, and the policies of détente caused many Americans to question the role of the CIA. Disclosures of intelligence agency abuses and failures were followed by investigations that resulted in new guidelines for secret operations and a new structure for executive and legislative supervision.