Campaign Financing

The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 placed strict limits on contributions and on the amount that can be spent on media advertising. It required periodic disclosures of all contributions and disbursements on behalf of candidates. It also provided for the partial federal financing of presidential primary campaigns and the full federal financing of presidential campaigns in the general election.

Embargo, [Im'bQ:gqV] edict, decree, or order, usually issued by a government, prohibiting the departure of merchant ships from ports under its control, or prohibiting them from carrying certain types of goods out of the country. An embargo may be levied on both domestic and foreign vessels.

Embargoes on foreign ships were formerly levied principally to prevent the spread of information about developments in the country declaring the embargo or in reprisal for an injury committed by another government. Both reasons lost their force, and embargoes on foreign ships declined in importance, chiefly as a result of extraordinary developments in communications in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Embargoes on domestic ships, sometimes called civil embargoes, have been levied because of an existing or anticipated shortage in a vital commodity within a country and for reasons of international policy.

Emperor, ['emp(q)rq] title, derived from the Latin imperator, which was originally applied generally to any magistrate of ancient Rome vested with power to command and to enforce the laws of the state. Later, the term came to be used specifically by Roman troops for a victorious general. When Julius Caesar adopted the title, imperator for the first time denoted a sovereign ruler, rather than merely a victorious commander. Throughout history various rulers have adopted the title of emperor, which generally refers to a ruler of wide territories and peoples.

Espionage, ['espIqnQ:Z] secret collection of information, or intelligence, that commonly relates to governmental foreign and defense policy. Espionage, or spying, proceeds against the attempts of counterespionage (or counterintelligence) agencies to protect the secrecy of the information desired. Espionage involves the recruiting of agents in foreign nations; efforts to encourage the disloyalty of those possessing significant information; and audio surveillance, as well as the use of photographic, sensing, and detection devices.

In the United States, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is the main agency for gathering secret information that may bear on national security. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has primary responsibility for counterespionage activities within the United States. The CIA is responsible for counterespionage outside the country. Many governments maintain some kind of intelligence capability. All nations have laws against espionage, but most sponsor spies in other lands.