Alternatives to Neutrality

The breakdown of neutrality that marked World War I (1914-1918) and World War II (1939-1945) reflected changes in the nature of warfare and the growing economic interdependence of nations throughout the world. Economic targets were as important as military targets, warfare covered entire nations, and weapons became increasingly destructive and difficult to control. At the same time the flow of trade from neutral nations became vitally important to the survival of most of the belligerent nations. The development of nuclear weapons, moreover, made neutrality increasingly impractical.

After the mid-1900s the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) both showed an awareness of the need to prevent a nuclear war by mutual deterrence and to seek ways to limit the production and possession of highly destructive weapons. In areas where these nations or their allies developed conflicting interests, they sometimes agreed in principle to accords guaranteeing the neutrality of such areas.

Nonaligned Nations, ["nPnq'laInd] association of countries that, during the Cold War period, had no formal commitment to either of the power blocs led by the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The group's origins can be traced to the division of the world into Communist and capitalist blocs after World War II (1939-1945) and the subsequent demise of colonialism. The group included countries that had freed themselves from foreign domination and rejected renewed ties to any big power. The nonaligned nations saw themselves as a buffer between rival military alliances. The dissolution of the USSR in 1991 forced the nations to redefine their role in a world where rivalry between two superpowers was no longer a factor.

Oligarchy ['PlIgQ:kI] is a form of government in which a small group of people holds the ruling power. Oligarchy, in political philosophy, form of government in which the supreme power is vested in a few persons. Political writers of ancient Greece used the term to designate the debased form of an aristocracy, or government by the best citizens. In an oligarchy, the government is controlled by a faction that acts in its own interests.

Open Door Policy, term that refers to the principle of equal trading rights in China at the end of the 19th century. It is also used to describe policies of equal trading rights in other countries. In the late 1800s the major European powers had obtained control of important areas of China. In 1899 and 1900 the United States negotiated the open door agreement with Japan and several European nations, guaranteeing equal trade with all parts of the Chinese Empire and preservation of Chinese territorial integrity.

Pacifism, ['pxsIfIz(q)m] opposition to war and other violence, expressed either in an organized political movement or as an individual ideology. Absolute pacifists are against all wars and violence; relative pacifists are selective of the wars and violence they oppose.

Absolute pacifism assumes that its adherents will be able to maintain moral courage when faced with aggression and that their opponents will be influenced by a constant return of good for bad. Such pacifism has never been entirely successful, however. A contemporary proponent of absolute pacifism usually claims the status of conscientious objector when faced with military service.

Some pacifists urge moral persuasion and passive resistance to achieve their goals. Many believe that peace can be maintained only by a readiness to use force in certain circumstances. One approach permits armed defense against attack, but not assistance to other nations being attacked. Proponents of collective security urge a defensive collaboration of peace-loving nations against violators of the peace.

The first peace society was organized in New York in 1815. Another society was organized in Massachusetts later that year, and both were incorporated into the American Peace Society founded in 1828. Other peace societies were established in Europe, and American linguist Elihu Burritt founded the League of Universal Brotherhood in 1848. Many new groups were organized toward the end of the 19th century, including the International Workingmen's Association and the International Peace Bureau.

Following World War I (1914-1918) many pacifists hoped the newly formed League of Nations would achieve collective security. This organization was loosely constructed, however, and provided no effective means of preventing war. After World War II (1939-1945) the United Nations (UN) was established, with a more elaborate machinery for keeping the peace. The greatest impetus to pacifism in modern times has been the development and use of nuclear weapons. Faced with the possibility of total nuclear war, pacifists throughout the world joined in working for a ban against the production of nuclear weapons, an end to testing nuclear weapons, and the disarmament of nations already possessing them.

Parliament, British, legislature of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It consists of the Crown, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons, but in common usage it refers only to the Lords and Commons. No statute may become law or be altered or repealed, nor may taxes be levied, without Parliament's consent. Cabinet members, including the prime minister, are members of one house or the other and are responsible to the House of Commons. The House of Lords is the highest court of appeal in Britain's judicial system.