History

The ancient despotic empires of Egypt, Sumer, Assyria, Persia, and Macedonia were followed by the rise of Greek city-states, the first self-governing communities. Greek philosopher Aristotle distinguished three categories of government: monarchy, government by a single individual; aristocracy, government by a few; and democracy, government by many. Ancient Rome introduced the principle that constitutional law, establishing the sovereignty of the state, is superior to ordinary law.

After the fall of Rome, the Holy Roman Empire kept alive the Roman concept of a universal dominion during the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century), retarding the development of national governments in Europe. However, the struggle of feudal barons to limit the power of their monarchs contributed to the development of representative government. The emergence of national governments in the 16th century is attributed to the great expansion in trade and manufacturing that made the creation of large political units necessary.

The modern nation-state was originally almost entirely dynastic and autocratic. However, in time, the middle class began to demand constitutional and representative government. In England, the Glorious Revolution in 1688 restricted the power of the monarch and established the preeminence of Parliament. This tendency culminated in the American Revolution (1775) and the French Revolution (1789), marking the rise of modern democratic government.

In the 19th century and part of the 20th century, the political base of government broadened through the extension of voting rights and other reforms. In addition, the concept developed that government should administer public and social services. Other developments of the 20th century included the appearance of totalitarian governments in a number of countries.

Great Seal of the United States, official seal of the United States government. It is two-sided, with an obverse and a reverse. Its design was adopted by the Congress of the Confederation in 1782. The seal now appears on a variety of documents, including presidential proclamations.

On the obverse of the seal is an American eagle with wings spread. On its breast the eagle bears a shield with 13 vertical red and white stripes surmounted by a horizontal stripe of blue. In its beak is a scroll inscribed with the Latin motto Epluribus unum ("From many, one"). A cluster of 13 five-pointed stars appears above the eagle.

A pyramid is the central figure of the reverse side. The base of the pyramid is inscribed with the date 1776 in Roman numerals. At the zenith of the pyramid appears the all-seeing eye of Divine Providence. The mottos Annuit coeptis ("He has smiled on our undertakings") and Novus ordo seclorum ("New order of the ages") are inscribed on this side.

Habeas Corpus ["heIbIqs'kO:pqs] лат. юр. розпорядження про притягнення арештованого до суду (особливо для розгляду питання щодо законності його арешту; тж. writ of habeas corpus)

Habeas Corpus Act – Хабеас Корпус (англійський закон 1679 г. про недоторканість особистості) refers usually to a writ(ордер) of habeas corpus, an order by a judge requiring the police to bring an arrested person into court. The court then decides if there is good reason to hold the prisoner.

Impeachment is an official charge by a legislative body accusing a government official of being unworthy of office. Impeachment, in the United States and the United Kingdom, proceeding by a legislature for the removal from office of a public official charged with misconduct in office. Impeachment comprises both the act of formulating the accusation and the resulting trial of the charges. The Constitution of the United States gives explicit directions for conducting impeachments.

The House of Representatives conducts the impeachment before the Senate, which serves as a court to try the official. The vice president presides over the impeachment, except in the case of an impeachment of the president, when the chief justice of the United States presides. A two-thirds majority vote of the senators present at an impeachment trial is necessary to secure conviction.In 1868 President Andrew Johnson was impeached on charges of defying the authority of Congress and of violating a federal law. Johnson was acquitted.

In 1974 President Richard M. Nixon was charged with obstructing justice, abusing his constitutional authority, and failing to obey the committee's subpoenas. Nixon resigned and the House took no further action. Impeachment procedure for states is modeled on that of the federal Constitution and has been infrequently invoked.

Imperialism [Im'pI(q)rIqlIz(q)m] is the policy or action by which one country controls another country or territory.

Initiative and Referendum are actions that allow voters a certain amount of direct control over lawmaking. Through the initiative, the voters can introduce a law. Through the referendum, a proposed law is put up to the voters for approval or disapproval.

Isolationism, ["aIsq'leIS(q)nIz(q)m] former United States foreign policy advocating the avoidance of alliances with other nations in order to maintain freedom of action in world affairs.