Lyalko S

The Development of Political Science

The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle and his teacher, Plato, believed that the main task of political science was to work out a model political order. This political order would establish maximum justice and, at the same time, remain completely stable. Plato was primarily a philosopher of ideas. He derived his insight chiefly from abstract speculation (thinking about nonconcrete things). Aristotle, on the other hand, insisted on empirical studies (investigation based on experience) in constructing his political theories.

Scholasticism was a major philosophical movement during the late Middle Ages. Its followers, often called scholastics, worked to fit the Greek tradition of political science into the religious framework of Christianity. Their main concern was to harmonize the power of government with ethics and moral laws. The greatest scholastic was Saint Thomas Aquinas. He ranked all other political subjects below law. In one of his most important works, Summa Theologica, Aquinas elaborated Aristotle's theories and adapted them to Christian purposes. Aquinas emphasized certain rights and duties of individuals in the processes of government. He also stressed that government should rule in accordance with those rights and duties. By stating that government was limited by law, Aquinas helped lay the foundation of modern constitutionalism.

Secularism. The theories of the medieval philosophers were challenged in the 1500's and early 1600's. Niccolo Machiavelli, a famous Florentine politician, pushed aside Christian idealism in favor of realistic power politics. Machiavelli's ideas were generalized by Thomas Hobbes, an English philosopher. In Hobbes's view, a person's entire life is a "ceaseless search for power." This approach became known as secularism because it separated politics from religion. Three writers who put those ideas into legalistic form were Jean Bodin, a French jurist; Johannes Althusius, a German political scientist; and Hugo Grotius, a Dutch lawyer who founded the science of international law.

Constitutionalism is a political system in which the powers of government are in fact limited by law or tradition. Constitutionalism developed during the mid-1600's as a reaction to absolutism--that is, absolute rule by one person. The reaction was especially strong in England, where it was climaxed by the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Several English writers influenced the basic theories of Western constitutionalism, including Richard Hooker, John Milton, and James Harrington. John Locke, perhaps the most influential political writer of the time, emphasized basic human rights and believed that people should revolt against governments that violated those rights. His book Two Treatises of Government (1690) greatly influenced political thought in the American colonies. Locke's ideas helped shape the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution.

Liberalism developed as a political philosophy largely from the theories of Locke. Liberalism represents a willingness to change ideas, proposals, and policies to meet current problems. Locke's theories were given a broader base by Montesquieu, one of a group of French writers called the philosophers. Liberal theories were reinforced by the radical individualism of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the utilitarian theories of David Hume, a Scotsman, and Jeremy Bentham, an Englishman. Individualists believe that freedom of the individual is as important as the welfare of any community. Utilitarians believe that the goal of politics is "the greatest happiness of the greatest number".

John Stuart Mill, an English philosopher and economist, summarized most of the liberal ideas that had developed up to his time. Three great German philosophers contributed liberal ideas that were somewhat different from classic liberalism. They were Immanuel Kant, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. The liberalism of Fichte and Hegel included ideas of socialism and nationalism. Kant's liberalism included a theory of universal peace through world organization. Kant explained his theory in On Eternal Peace (1795).

Democracy and socialism. Some of Rousseau's writings carried his political theories beyond radical individualism. In The Social Contract (1762), Rousseau became the theorist of democracy. His emphasis on the collective--the general will, as Rousseau described it--gave rise to socialism. Eventually, the theories about democracy became divided. Liberal, constitutional, democratic ideas were followed in the United States. Socialist democratic ideas became predominant in Europe. Socialism was further developed by Karl Marx, a German philosopher and economist. He first expressed his socialist ideas in the Communist Manifesto (1848), which he wrote with his colleague Friedrich Engels. Communism in the Soviet Union was based on Marxist doctrines as interpreted and modified by V. I. Lenin, who led the Russian Revolution in 1917. Marxism-Leninism differs greatly from the Marxist doctrines followed by democratic socialists in many countries of Western Europe.

Contemporary ideas. Since about 1900, most political scientists have sought increasingly to strengthen the empirical basis of their work. They have been returning to Aristotle's view of basing political theories and methods on experience. As a result, much progress has been made in descriptive and analytical work, and in quantitative studies (studies that collect data in numerical form), such as opinion polls. Today, political scientists make practical improvement and political reform of their major concerns. Many current political studies consider most nations of the world. Such global interests find expression in the International Political Science Association. About 40 national political science associations work together in this organization.

2. Study the following phrases. Recall the sentences in which they are used in the text. Use them when retelling the unit.

to work out ['wE:k'aVt] (розробити, спланувати) = 1.To accomplish by work or effort. 2. To find a solution for; solve: worked out the equations; worked out their personal differences. 3. To formulate or develop: work out a plan.

b) stable ['steIb(q)l] (стійкий, стабільний; міцний, надійний) = 1.a. Resistant to change of position or condition; steadfast. b. Maintaining equilibrium; self-restoring.2.Immutable; permanent; enduring. 3.a. Consistently dependable. b. Not subject to mental illness or irrationality. 4.Physics. Having no known mode of decay; indefinitely long-lived. Used of atomic particles. 5. Chemistry. Not easily decomposed or otherwise modified chemically.
Synonyms: steady, stable, fixed, constant, stable, permanent, unchangeable, balanced, solid, substantial.
с) primarily ['praIm(q)rqlI] (перш за все, головним чином) = 1. Chiefly; mainly: a scholastic program primarily for seniors; a primarily middle-class neighborhood. 2. At first; originally.
Synonyms: initially, first of all, before everything, first and foremost.
d) to derive [dI'raIv] ( походити, происходить, вести своё происхождение, вытекать, быть следствием, выводить, получать) verb, transitive 1. To obtain or receive from a source. 2. To arrive at by reasoning; deduce or infer: derive a conclusion from facts. 3. To trace the origin or development of (a word). 4.Chemistry. To produce or obtain (a compound) from another substance by chemical reaction. verb, intransitive To issue from a source; originate.
e) to fit [fIt] (відповідати, пристосовувати) = 1. a. To be the proper size and shape for: These shoes fit me. b. To cause to be the proper size and shape: The tailor fitted the trousers by shortening them. c. To measure for proper size: She fitted me for a new jacket. 2. To be appropriate to; suit: music that fits your mood. 3. To be in conformity or agreement with: observations that fit the theory nicely. 4. To make suitable; adapt: fitted the shelves for large books. 5.To make ready; prepare: Specialized training fitted her for the job.
f) to harmonize ['hQ:mqnaIz] (гармонізувати, узгоджувати, приводити у відповідність) = To bring or come into agreement or harmony.= synchronize, regulate, adjust
g) to rank [rxNk] (шикувати, класифікувати; дати оцінку) = 1. To place in a row or rows. 2. To give a particular order or position to; classify. 3. To outrank or take precedence over.
h) to elaborate [I'lxbqreIt] (детально розробляти; виробляти, уточнювати, розвивати) = 1. To work out with care and detail; develop thoroughly. 2. To produce by effort; create.
i) to state [steIt] (заявляти, формулювати, стверджувати, констатувати, визначати) = To set forth in words; declare.
j) constitutionalism ["kPnstI'tju:S(q)nqlIz(q)m] (конституційна форма правління) = 1.Government in which power is distributed and limited by a system of laws that must be obeyed by the rulers. 2. a. A constitutional system of government. b. Advocacy of such a system.
k) to challenge ['tSxlIndZ] (заперечувати ,оспорювати, кидати виклик) = 1.a. To call to engage in a contest, fight, or competition: challenged me to a game of chess. b. To invite with defiance (непокора); dare: challenged him to contradict her. 2. To take exception to; call into question; dispute: a book that challenges established beliefs. 3. To order to halt and be identified, as by a sentry. 4. Law. To take formal objection to (a prospective juror). 5. To question the qualifications of (a voter) or validity of (a vote). 6. To have due claim to; call for: events that challenge our attention. 7. To summon to action, effort, or use; stimulate: a problem that challenges the imagination.
l) to generalize ['dZen(q)rqlaIz] (узагальнити; розповсюдити, ввести в загальний вжиток) = 1. a. To reduce to a general form, class, or law. b. To render indefinite or unspecific.2. a. To infer (робити висновок) from many particulars. b. To draw inferences or a general conclusion from. 3. a. To make generally or universally applicable. b. To popularize.4. a. To form a concept inductively. b. To form general notions or conclusions.
m) ceaseless ['si:slIs] (безперервний, непрестанный; непрерывный безостановочный; непрекращающийся) = Without stop or pause; constant. Synonyms: perpetual [pq'petSVql]: nonstop, constant, continual, incessant, unceasing.
n) secular ['sekjVlq] (світський , мирский, нецерковний) = 1. Worldly rather than spiritual. 2. Not specifically relating to religion or to a religious body: secular music. 3. Relating to or advocating secularism. 4. Not bound by monastic restrictions, especially not belonging to a religious order. Used of the clergy. 5. Occurring or observed once in an age or a century. 6. Lasting from century to century.
o) secularism ['sekjVlqrIz(q)m] (заперечення (всякої) релігії; атеїзм; антиклерикалізм; доктрина відділення церкви від держави; боротьба за відділення школи від церкви, боротьба за світську освіту ) = 1. Religious skepticism or indifference. 2. The view that religious considerations should be excluded from civil affairs or public education.
p) climax ['klaImxks] (досягнути вищої межі; кульмінація; зростати) = 1. The point of greatest intensity or force in an ascending series or progression; a culmination. 2. a. A series of statements or ideas in an ascending order of rhetorical force or intensity. b. The final statement in such a series. 3. a. A moment of great or culminating intensity in a narrative or drama, especially the conclusion of a crisis. b. The turning point in a plot or dramatic action.
q) to emphasize ['emfqsaIz] (робити наголос, підкреслювати, виділяти) = To give emphasis to; stress.
Synonyms: lay stress on, accent, accentuate, underline, put in italics, italicize, put in bold letters.
r) to revolt [rI'vqVlt] (повстати) = 1. To attempt to overthrow the authority of the state; rebel. 2. To oppose or refuse to accept something: revolting against high taxes.
s) to shape [SeIp] (сформувати,придавать чёткую форму; приводить у порядок) = 1. To give a particular form to; create. 2.To cause to conform to a particular form or pattern; adapt to fit. 3. a. To plan to bring about the realization or accomplishment of; devise. b. To embody in a definite form: shaped a folk legend into a full-scale opera. 4. a. To adapt to a particular use or purpose; adjust. b. To direct the course of: "He shaped history as well as being shaped by it" (Robert J. Samuelson). 5. To come to pass; happen. 6. To take on a definite shape or form. Often used with up or into.
t) to reinforce [ri:In'fO:s] (підсилювати) = 1. To give more force or effectiveness to; strengthen: The news reinforced her hopes. 2. To strengthen (a military force) with additional personnel or equipment. 3.To strengthen by adding extra support or material.
u) to summarize ['sAmqraIz] (підсумовувати, підводити підсумки) = to present a body of material in a condensed form by reducing it to its main points; to abstract.
v) colleague ['kPli:g] (колега,товариш по службі) (A fellow member of a profession, a staff, or an academic faculty; an associate. One that is united or associated with another or others in an activity or a sphere of common interest.)
w) consider [kqn'sIdq] (розглядати, вважати, обговорювати, враховувати) = verb, transitive 1. To think carefully about. 2. To think or deem to be; regard as. 3. To form an opinion about; judge: He considers waste to be criminal. 4. To take into account; bear in mind: Her success is not surprising if you consider her excellent training. 5. To show consideration for: failed to consider the feelings of others. 6. To esteem; regard. 7. To look at thoughtfully. verb, intransitive To think carefully; reflect: Give me time to consider. Synonyms: consider, deem, regard, account, reckon. These verbs refer to holding opinions or views that are based on evaluation. Consider suggests objective reflection and reasoning: She is considered an intelligent woman. He considers success of little importance.
x) to give rise to smth. – а) давати початок чому-н.; б) спричиняти, викликати, бути джерелом; давати привід; мати результат; the rumour gave rise to a lot of unnecessary worry – ці чутки спричинили багато зайвих турбот = To be the cause or origin of; bring about.
y) to become divided – (розійтися у думках, виявляти розбіжність) = To become separated into parts according to kind.
3. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and word combinations :
to derive one’s insight from;
to fit smth into ;
in accordance with smth;
to lay the foundation;
to push aside;
in favor of;
entire life;
to violate the rights;
to meet current problems;
descriptive and analytical work; quantitative studies;
opinion poll;
to strengthen the empirical basis
4. Find in the text English equivalents of the following words and phrases .Use them in sentences of your own and situations from the text:
вести судження ;
прилаштувати (пристосовувати) щось до чогось ;
згідно з (відповідно до чогось);
закласти фундамент (покласти початок);
заперечувати(піддавати сумніву);
узагальнити ;
відштовхнути(відкинути);
на користь когось(чогось);
все життя;
безперервний пошук влади;
повстати проти уряду ;
готовність ;
задовольняти (відповідати, соответствовать) насущні проблемам;
добробут;
домінуючий;
наочна та аналітична праця;
кількісний аналіз (дослідження);
опитування громадської думки;
5. Read the following statements and decide which of them are true (T) or false (F) according to the context & grammar:

Three writers has been trying to put secular ideas into legalistic form.
John Locke believe that people shouldn’t revolt against governments.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s individualism reinforced liberal theories.
Kant's liberalism included a theory of universal peace.
Marxism-Leninism does not differ from the Marxist doctrines.
Many progress has been made in descriptive and analytical work.

6. Fill in the blanks with a suitable word in the correct form.
to give; to seek; to harmonize; to make; justice; to become; to develop.
1) This political order would establish maximum …………... and, at the same time, remain completely stable.
2) Their main concern was …………………... the power of government with ethics and moral laws.
3) This approach …………………….. known as secularism because it separated politics from religion.
4) Constitutionalism …………………… during the mid-1600's as a reaction to absolutism--that is, absolute rule by one person.
5) Locke's theories ………… …………… a broader base by Montesquieu, one of a group of French writers.
6) Most political scientists ………. ………… increasingly to strengthen the empirical basis of their work.
7) Much progress ………… ………. ………… in descriptive and analytical work.

7. Match each word with its definition.Write the letter of the definition on the line.

_____1) Thomas Aquinas	a) entire life is a "ceaseless search for power".
_____2) John Stuart Mill	b) the goal of politics is "the greatest happiness of the greatest number."
_____3) V. I. Lenin	c) He first expressed his socialist ideas in the Communist Manifesto (1848).
_____4) Niccolo Machiavelli	d) led the Russian Revolution in 1917.
_____5) Utilitarians	e) summarized most of the liberal ideas that had developed up to his time.
_____6) Thomas Hobbes	f) He ranked all other political subjects below law.
_____7) Karl Marx	g) A famous Florentine ['flPrqntaIn] politician.

8. Translate these sentences. Interpret the underlined phrases and give synonyms to them :
Charles II(1630-1685) attempted to restore order, but the issue of sovereignty remained to be resolved. Some factions, called the Whigs, urged exclusion of the king's Roman Catholic brother James from succession. The Tories, favoring the king and the Anglican church, opposed his exclusion. Charles subsequently ruled without Parliament.
He died in 1685, passing the throne to James. In 1688 the opponents of James II invited William of Orange, a Protestant and husband of Charles I's eldest daughter, Mary, to come to safeguard Mary's inheritance. When William landed, James fled.
In 1689 Parliament gave William and Mary the crown jointly, on condition that they affirm the Bill of Rights listing and condemning the abuses of James. A Toleration Act gave freedom of worship to Protestant dissenters. This bloodless and successful revolution was called the Glorious Revolution. Under William and Mary, England asserted itself as the military, financial, and intellectual leader of the world.
Resume: As a result of the English, American, and French revolutions, libertarian ideals were embodied in the structure of national governments. In England the struggle between Parliament and the Stuart monarchs culminated in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The new king, William III, gave royal assent (1689) to the Declaration of Rights, which guaranteed constitutional government. The 17th century was marked also by the growth of individual freedom in England. In the common law courts, for example, the judges became more concerned for the rights of those accused of crime.
9. Make up a plan of the text in the form of statements (5 points).
10. Restore the chain of the 3 components correspondingly:

"synonyms – antonyms – synonyms".

Synonyms	Antonyms	Synonyms
to develop	to foul up	to evolve
to strengthen	to tame	to reinforce
to harmonize	interrupted	to rebel
colleague	slippery	companion
to infringe	to observe	to trespass['trespqs]
to revolt	to diminish	to coordinate
ceaseless	to depress	steady
stable	rival	incessant

11. Retell the text : a) in detail b) in brief .
12. Render all the biography of Johannes Althusius (p.172) into English, paying special attention to the use of the Rules of Sequence of Tenses and non-finite forms (Verbals).
13. Answer the following questions:

Where has Plato chiefly derived his insight from ?
What was Thomas Aquinas’ attitude to Aristotle's theories ?
In what way can the term ‘secularism’ be interpreted ?
Whom was the science of international law founded by ?
What events took place in England in 1688 ?
What is the purpose of politics as Utilitarians considered ?
Who is considered to be the theorist of democracy ?
What organization represents the global interests of political scientists all over the world ?
What do opinion poll takers deal with ?
Characterize John Locke’s contribution to the political science .

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