32. McGladdery sl, Aparicio s, Verrier Jones k, Roberts r, Sacks sh.

Outcome of pregnancy in an OxfordCardiff cohort of women with previous bacteriuria. QJMed 1992; 83: 533-539.

33. Merckx L, De Вое V, Braeckman J, Verboven M, Piepsz A, Keuppens F.

Endoscopic submucosal Teflon injection (STING): an alternative treatment of vesicoureteric reflux in children. Eur J Pediatr Surg 1995; 5: 34-36.

34. Ortenberg J.

Endoscopic treatment of vesicoureteral reflux in children. Urol Clin North Am 1998; 25: 151-156.

35. Piepsz A, Tamminen-Mobius T, Reiners C, Heikkila J, Kivisaari A, Nilsson NJ, Sixt R, Ridson RA, Smellie JM, Soderborg B.

Five-year study of medical or surgical treatment in children with severe vesico-ureteral reflux dimercap-tosuccinic acid findings. International Reflux Study Group in Europe. Eur J Pediatr 1998; 157: 753-758.

36. Puri P, Granata С

Multicenter survey of endoscopic treatment of vesicoureteral reflux using polytetrafluoroethylene. J Urol 1998; 160: 1007-1011.

37. Puri P, Ninan GK, Surana R.

Subureteric Teflon injection (STING). Results of a European survey. Eur Urol 1995; 27: 71-75.

38. Riedmiller H, Becht E, Hertle L, Jacobi G, Hohenfellner R.

Psoas-Hitch ureteroneocystostomy: experience with 181 cases. Eur Urol 1984; 10: 145-150.

39. Riedmiller H, Riedmiller RL, Jacobi GH, Hohenfellner R.

Therapie des vesiko-renalen Refluxes im Kindesalter. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 1983; 108: 1522-1524.

40. Riedmiller H, Kohl U.

Leitlinie zur Abklarung des vesikorenalen Reflux und therapeutische Empfehlungen. Urologe A 1998; 37: 667-668.

41. Ritchey ML, Bloom D.

Summary of the urology section. American Academy of Pediatrics. Pediatrics 1995; 96: 138-143.

42. Roberts JA.

Mechanisms of renal damage in chronic pyelonephritis (reflux nephropathy). CurrTop Pathol 1995; 88: 265-287.

43. Rosenfeld DL, Fleischer M, Yudd A, Makowsky T.

Current recommendations for children with urinary tract infections. Clin Pediatr Phila 1995; 34: 261-264.

44. Shapiro E, Elder JS.

The office management of recurrent urinary tract infection and vesicoureteral reflux in children. Urol Clin North Am 1998; 25: 725-734.

45. Shoukry MS, El Salmy S, Aly GA, Mokhless I.

Urodynamic predictors of upper tract deterioration in children with myelodysplasia. Scand J Urol Nephrol 1998; 32: 94-97.

46. Sirota L, Hertz M, Laufer J, Jonas P, Boichis H.

Familial vesicoureteral reflux: a study of 16 families. Urol Radiol 1986; 8: 22-24.

47. Smellie, JM, Rigden SP.

Pitfalls in the investigation of children with urinary tract infection. Arch Dis Child 1995; 72: 251-255.

48. Smellie JM, Prescod NP, Shaw PJ, Ridson RA, Bryant TN.

Childhood reflux and urinary infection: a follow-up of 10-41 years in 226 adults. Pediatr Nephrol 1998; 12: 727-736.

49. Smellie JM, Rigden SP, Prescod NP.

Urinary tract infection: a comparison of four methods of investigation. Arch Dis Child 1995; 72: 247-250.

50. Smellie JM.

The intravenous urogram in the detection and evaluation of renal damage following urinary tract infection. Pediatr Nephrol 1995; 9: 213-219.

51. SnodgrassW.

The impact of treated dysfunctional voiding on the nonsurgical management of vesicoureteral reflux. J Urol 1998; 160: 1823-1825.

52. Stokland E, Hellstrom M, Hansson S, Jodal U, Oden A, Jacobsson B.

Reliability of ultrasonography in identification of reflux nephropathy in children. BMJ 1994; 309: 235-239.

53. Thuroff JW, Altwein JE, Marberger M, Hartmann I, Hohenfellner R.

Der primare vesiko-ureterale Reflux im Erwachsenenalter. Akt Urol 1979; 10: 329-339.

54. Toomey JM, Brown BS.

The histological response to intracordal injection of Teflon paste. Laryngoscope 1967; 77: 110-120.

55. Vandenbossche M, Delhove O, Dumortier P, Deneft F, Schulman CC. Endoscopic treatment of reflux: experimental study and review of Teflon and collagen. Eur Urol 1993; 23: 386-393.

56. Williams MA, Noe HN, Smith RA.

The importance of urinary tract infection in the evaluation of the incontinent child. J Urol 1994; 151: 188-190.

57. Wingen AM, Koskimies O, Olbing H, Seppanen J, Tamminen-Mobius T.

Growth and weight gain in children with vesicoureteral reflux receiving medical versus surgical treatment: 10-year results of a prospective, randomized study. International Reflux Study in Children (European Branch). Acta Paediatr 1999; 88: 56-61.

8. PAEDIATRIC NEPHROLITHIASIS

^{8.1 BACKGROUND}

Stone disease in children is uncommon and stone formation is often associated with metabolic disorders, chro­nic infections and/or morphological anomalies of the urinary tract. Recurrence rate is only high in cases of metabolic disorders and may be the initial manifestation of a congenital and subsequently chronic disease. It is important to realize that stone formation is not a disease in itself, but a consequence of an underlying disorder. Treatment of paediatric nephrolithiasis must therefore comprise a strategy to clear the actual stone burden reliably, diagnose and, ideally, eliminate the underlying pathology. Effective measures should be taken to prevent recurrent disease.